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Topic guide

Water

Find references on data centre water consumption, cooling water and water efficiency. Investigate local conditions, measurement boundaries and the relationship between energy and water use through technical notes.

Sources
93
Downloadable PDFs
26
Years
2009–2026
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Technical guidePDFEditor’s pick

Open Compute Project Foundation 2023

Guidelines for Using Water-Based Transfer Fluids in Single-Phase Cold Plate-Based Liquid-Cooled Racks

Write the Table 1 targets (TSS, TDS, conductivity, copper and iron, pH, hardness, turbidity, bacteria, azole inhibitor, chloride) into the fluid specification as acceptance criteria and request a certificate of analysis from the supplier.

  • pH 8.0-10.5; total hardness below 30 ppm (below 2 ppm for fresh fill); turbidity below 5 NTU.
Liquid coolingWaterCommissioning
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Research paperFree to readEditor’s pick

Journal of Science Policy & Governance (Journal of Science Policy and Governance, Inc.) 2026

Is Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) Still Fit for Purpose? An Integrative Review of Data Center Metrics for Assessing the Environmental Impact of Modern AI Infrastructure

Give the sustainability panel at least four axes (PUE, CUE, WUE/WUEsource and a placeholder for IT productivity) and show them as a radar chart, so a low PUE never appears alone.

  • Water-energy tipping point: in a hot, dry climate a further 10% cut in water use can raise total energy use by 25%; in a cool, humid climate the cost is low.
Performance metricsWaterSustainability
Research paperPDF

Fluids (MDPI AG) 2026

A Review of Thermal Management in Modern Data Centres: Water Usage Effectiveness and Heat Transfer Coefficients

Set WUE targets from the heat-rejection topology (dry, free-cooling, hybrid, evaporative) and not only the server-side cooling technology; WUE depends on the share of heat rejected by evaporation.

  • Dry facilities with closed-loop liquid cooling need essentially no water, while evaporative systems typically report WUE up to 2.5 L/kWh.
WaterCoolingLiquid cooling
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Technical guidePDFEditor’s pick

Open Compute Project Foundation 2023

Guidelines for Using Water-Based Transfer Fluids in Single-Phase Cold Plate-Based Liquid-Cooled Racks

Write the Table 1 targets (TSS, TDS, conductivity, copper and iron, pH, hardness, turbidity, bacteria, azole inhibitor, chloride) into the fluid specification as acceptance criteria and request a certificate of analysis from the supplier.

  • pH 8.0-10.5; total hardness below 30 ppm (below 2 ppm for fresh fill); turbidity below 5 NTU.
Liquid coolingWaterCommissioning
Read / Download
Research paperFree to readEditor’s pick

Journal of Science Policy & Governance (Journal of Science Policy and Governance, Inc.) 2026

Is Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) Still Fit for Purpose? An Integrative Review of Data Center Metrics for Assessing the Environmental Impact of Modern AI Infrastructure

Give the sustainability panel at least four axes (PUE, CUE, WUE/WUEsource and a placeholder for IT productivity) and show them as a radar chart, so a low PUE never appears alone.

  • Water-energy tipping point: in a hot, dry climate a further 10% cut in water use can raise total energy use by 25%; in a cool, humid climate the cost is low.
Performance metricsWaterSustainability
Research paperPDF

Fluids (MDPI AG) 2026

A Review of Thermal Management in Modern Data Centres: Water Usage Effectiveness and Heat Transfer Coefficients

Set WUE targets from the heat-rejection topology (dry, free-cooling, hybrid, evaporative) and not only the server-side cooling technology; WUE depends on the share of heat rejected by evaporation.

  • Dry facilities with closed-loop liquid cooling need essentially no water, while evaporative systems typically report WUE up to 2.5 L/kWh.
WaterCoolingLiquid cooling
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RegulationPDF

European Commission 2026

Annexes 1 to 3 to Commission Delegated Regulation C(2026) 3472 - EU data centre energy (PUE) and water (WUE) efficiency classes, data centre label, and amendments to Delegated Regulation (EU) 2024/1364

Translate PUE and WUE targets into A-G classes: class A needs a design PUE of 1.15 or below and WUE of 0.1 or below; the class D boundary is 1.5 and 0.6. Write the class target into the design specification.

  • WUE classes: A <= 0.1; B 0.1-0.2; C 0.2-0.4; D 0.4-0.6; E 0.6-0.8; F 0.8-1.0; G > 1.0.
Performance metricsRegulatoryWater
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Technical guidePDF

European Commission, DG ENER (AIT, Borderstep Institute, EY) 2025

Assessment of next steps to promote the energy performance and sustainability of data centres in EU, including the establishment of an EU-wide rating scheme - Second technical report

Align the PUE target of new designs with the proposed MPS: design PUE below 1.3 and operational PUE below 1.4 in the first three years; for existing sites plan the path to below 1.5 by 2030.

  • MPS feasibility was tested across 27 data centre archetypes with selected best available techniques (BAT).
RegulatoryPerformance metricsWater
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Research paperPDF

arXiv preprint (cs.CY; formatted for ACM e-Energy '26) 2026

Beyond PUE: A Local-Impact Audit Framework for Data Center Environmental Accountability

In siting and community-acceptance files, present PUE, WUE and CUE together with regional water stress, grid headroom and verification maturity (L0-L4); back project commitments with contractual limits and independent metering (L2-L3).

  • Compliance gate: any unresolved major regulatory violation caps the composite score at a ceiling of 40 (suggested, subject to calibration).
Performance metricsWaterSite planning
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Research paperPDF

Resources, Conservation and Recycling (Elsevier BV) 2022

Climate- and technology-specific PUE and WUE estimations for U.S. data centers using a hybrid statistical and thermodynamics-based approach

In early data-centre design, set PUE and WUE targets by size class, cooling system and climate zone using this study's ranges (for example 1.71-2.22 for small rooms, 1.12-1.25 for large scale).

  • Airside economisers with adiabatic cooling (case 1) use less water than airside economisers alone (case 3).
CoolingWaterEnergy
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RegulationPDF

European Commission 2026

Commission Delegated Regulation C(2026) 3472 of 21.9.2026 supplementing Directive (EU) 2023/1791 and amending Delegated Regulation (EU) 2024/1364 as regards the establishment of a common Union rating scheme for data centres (main act)

As labels will be issued every year from 15 August 2027, set PUE and WUE class targets (Annex I) at design stage for new and existing sites and build the metering infrastructure to the reporting requirements.

  • Labels are generated automatically by the European database every year from 15 August 2027 and are publicly available electronically in all official Union languages.
RegulatoryPerformance metricsEnergy
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Research paperPDF

arXiv (University of Michigan preprint) 2026

Data Center Cooling Choices Shift Water Impacts Across the Grid: An Integrated Water-Energy Model for Sustainable Data Center Development

In cooling selection, calculate direct and indirect water together: an air-cooled chiller cut direct water 97% but raised the indirect share to 96.6% and electricity by 32%.

  • Indirect water intensity varied by about 50% across months, depending on which generators supplied the added load.
WaterCoolingEnergy
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White paperPDF

Open Compute Project Foundation 2023

Data Centers Heat Reuse 101

A heat-reuse module should report recoverable heat (kW) and its temperature band by cooling technology (air, RDHx, DLC/immersion) and suggest compatible heat-host categories.

  • Containerised/modular data centres can exceed 0.5 MW, a significant heat quantity for many local applications.
SustainabilityEnergyCooling
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Research paperPDF

npj Clean Water (Springer Science and Business Media LLC) 2021

Data centre water consumption

In cooling selection, add the roughly 25.5 million litres per year per MW of evaporative cooling water need and the potable share (57-65%) to the siting and water supply decision.

  • Raising chilled-water temperature from the usual 7-10 °C to 18-20 °C can cut expenses by 40%.
WaterCoolingPerformance metrics
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Technical guidePDF

Open Compute Project Foundation 2025

Guidelines for Pre-Commission Preparation of Technology Cooling System (TCS) Row Manifolds in Liquid Cooled Data Centers

Generate a TCS pre-commissioning test script from the piping model: proof pressure at 1.3-1.5 x design working pressure, minimum flushing flow per pipe size at 3-5 ft/s, and sequential leg isolation.

  • Procedure water: conductivity at most 50 uS/cm, pH at least 6, total aerobic bacteria at most 1000 CFU/ml.
CommissioningLiquid coolingWater
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