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Energy Advances (Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)) · 2025

Full life cycle assessment of an industrial lead–acid battery based on primary data

For UPS duty with a few cycles a year and minutes of autonomy, compare battery chemistries by environmental impact categories (GWP, ecotoxicity, resource depletion) as well as energy density, because production and EOL dominate.

• Data centres account for about 37% of the roughly 3.4 billion USD global stationary-battery market, followed by telecom at 25%.

UPSSustainability

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White paperFree to read

Schneider Electric · 2014

Fundamental Principles of Air Conditioners for Information Technology

Give CRAC and condenser catalogue entries cooling kW, airflow (m3/min), electrical input kW, footprint, weight and service connections (refrigerant line sizes, condensate drain, humidifier water).

• The 50 kW CRAC needs two ~25 mm refrigerant lines, a 22.2 mm condensate drain and a 6.4 mm humidifier water line.

Cooling

White paperFree to read

Schneider Electric · 2013

Fundamentals of Managing the Data Center Life Cycle for Owners

Model a project as plan -> design -> build -> operate/assess and gate site selection behind the six completed requirements, warning if a site is chosen before they are set.

• The operate phase often lasts 10, 15 or 20 years.

OperationsCommissioningSite planning

White paperFree to read

Siemens · 2021

Gas-insulated, arc-resistant switchgear for critical power applications (white paper)

In the MV switchgear catalogue store insulation {AIS, GIS}, arc-resistance standard and rating, inspection interval and footprint.

• An estimated 50% of AIS failure causes do not apply to MV GIS.

ElectricalReliabilitySite planning

Technical guideFree to read

U.S. DOE Federal Energy Management Program / Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory · 2014

General Recommendations for a Federal Data Center Energy Management Dashboard Display (FEMP, July 2014)

In the metering design tool, let users pick Level 1/2/3 metering and display the resulting PUE uncertainty band.

• The author recommends a Level 3 measurement package, subject to budget.

Performance metricsOperationsEnergy

Technical guideFree to read

CBRE · 2025

Global Data Center Trends 2025

In the site module, store local power and planning caps (for example Amsterdam 70 MW IT) as site-rule warnings.

• Northern Virginia inventory is 3,046.1 MW with vacancy of 0.76%.

Site planningElectrical

Research paperPDF

IEEE Access (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)) · 2026

GRAPE-UPS: Direction-Constrained Peer Anomaly Detection for Weak Batteries in Data-Center UPS Strings

Require block-level (per-unit) voltage and resistance monitoring in UPS battery monitoring rather than string totals, citing that one weak unit in a series string limits the whole string's capacity.

• On an independent electrochemical simulation benchmark, directed peer scoring achieved AUPRC 0.848 under nominal conditions and 0.850-0.877 under operating shifts.

UPSOperationsReliability

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Energy Efficient HPC Working Group · 2019

Grid Accommodation of Dynamic HPC Demand (EE HPC State of the Practice Workshop, 2019)

Site/grid-connection screens should capture expected load-step magnitude and ramp time and short-circuit strength at the point of connection.

• ORNL's Summit has a 13 MW peak demand.

ElectricalSite planningReliability

Research paperPDF

arXiv preprint (University of Michigan) · 2026

Grid Integration of AI Data Centers: A Critical Review of Energy Storage Solutions (arXiv preprint)

Layer storage by timescale (chip/server sub-ms to ms, rack ms to seconds, UPS and GiUPS sub-second to 10 s, BESS minutes to hours) and show each layer's duty in the coordination scheme.

• Rapid AI load variations often induce 5-10% voltage swings within milliseconds.

UPSElectricalEnergy

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Advances in Applied Energy (Elsevier BV) · 2026

Grid Integration of AI Data Centers: A Critical Review of Energy Storage Solutions

Layer storage by timescale: GPU/server supercapacitors for sub-second swings, rack BBUs for minutes, facility GiUPS and BESS for grid services and longer durations; show each layer's duty and coordination separately in the architecture.

• BESS cost fell from about $7,500/kWh in 1991 to $133/kWh in 2024, with about $80/kWh projected by 2030.

UPSElectricalEnergy

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Eaton · 2021

Grid-Interactive Data Centers: Enabling Decarbonization and System Stability

When sizing UPS batteries, model a grid-services band on top of the required autonomy.

• Irish field case: the UPS delivered a static 25 kW response when frequency fell below 49.70 Hz.

UPSEnergyElectrical

White paperFree to read

Schneider Electric · 2012

Grounding and the Use of the Signal Reference Grid in Data Centers

Do not include an SRG by default in new designs; offer it as an optional line item with $/m2 install and biennial maintenance cost.

• SRG budgetary cost about $70/m2, $182 per rack.

ElectricalRacks

Technical guidePDF

U.S. Department of Energy / U.S. EPA (ENERGY STAR) · 2013

Guidance on the UPS ENERGY STAR Test Method (December 12, 2013)

When ingesting vendor UPS efficiency figures, record the input configuration (three-phase) and whether the values follow ENERGY STAR or IEC 62040-3 methods.

• DOE data show durations over 15 minutes do not change average efficiency.

UPSPerformance metrics

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Schneider Electric · 2025

Guide to Assess a Commercial Product’s Sustainability

Add EPD/PEP fields to each catalogue product: programme operator, PCR/PSR version, validity date, functional unit, reference product weight and rating, per-stage kg CO2e, emission factor used and exclusions such as batteries.

• Standards allow a +/-5% margin of error on reported values, so indicators within 10% of each other should be treated as equal.

Sustainability

StandardCitation

IEEE · 2023

Guidelines and Experimental Hydraulic Performance Evaluation for Single-Phase CDUs Under Steady and Transient Events (ITherm 2023)

Include loop connect/disconnect transient tests in commissioning scripts generated for liquid-cooled rows.

• The abstract cites cooling as about 40% of data-centre energy use as motivation.

Liquid coolingCommissioning

Technical guidePDF

Open Compute Project Foundation · 2022

Guidelines for Connection of Liquid Cooled Information Technology Equipment (ITE) to Data Center Facility Systems, Revision 1, Version 1.0 (April 2022)

Place standard tap-off points with isolation valves, vent/drain/flush connections and strainers at every rack or CDU connection in liquid cooling layouts, sized from Q = flow x delta T x cp so future kW per position is explicit.

• Keeping FWS liquid above dew point avoids condensation; the ASHRAE recommended dew point limit for air-cooled classes A1-A4 is 15 C.

Liquid coolingCoolingSite planning

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Open Compute Project Foundation · 2025

Guidelines for Pre-Commission Preparation of Technology Cooling System (TCS) Row Manifolds in Liquid Cooled Data Centers

Generate a TCS pre-commissioning test script from the piping model: proof pressure at 1.3-1.5 x design working pressure, minimum flushing flow per pipe size at 3-5 ft/s, and sequential leg isolation.

• Procedure water: conductivity at most 50 uS/cm, pH at least 6, total aerobic bacteria at most 1000 CFU/ml.

CommissioningLiquid coolingWater

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Technical guidePDF

Open Compute Project Foundation · 2026

Guidelines for Using Dielectric Heat Transfer Fluids in Two-Phase Cold Plate-Based Liquid-Cooled Racks, Revision 1.1 (March 2026)

Apply refrigerant-specific rules to two-phase DLC designs in place of water-loop rules: GWP below 700, A1 safety class, and vapour/liquid line sizing with under 0.2 bar evaporator-to-condenser loss.

• Minimal filtration is about 100 um; ambient during operation should stay within 5-35 C.

Liquid coolingCoolingCommissioning

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ASHRAE · 2019

Hard Disk Drive Performance Degradation Susceptibility to Acoustics (ASHRAE TC 9.9 White Paper)

Warn when high inlet temperatures (driving fan speed-up) are combined with HDD-heavy storage racks.

• HDDs show sensitivity up to about 20 kHz while servo correction is effective only below about 2 kHz.

CoolingAirflowRacks

Technical guideFree to read

Danfoss · 2024

Harmonics in HVAC applications - Surprisingly simple ways to reduce harmonic mitigation costs

In the power-quality check compute THDv at the PCC for every supply mode (both transformers, one transformer, generator only); generator mode is usually the worst case.

• Design to 5% THDv at the PCC rather than THDi <= 5% or 8% at each drive.

ElectricalCoolingEnergy

Technical guideFree to read

TMMOB Makina Mühendisleri Odası (MMO) - Tesisat Mühendisliği Dergisi · 2025

Hava Soğutmalı Veri Merkezi Soğutma Sistemleri ve Güncel Gelişmeler (Air-cooled data-centre cooling systems and recent developments)

Provide a cooling-topology picker (room, row, rack, economiser direct/indirect) with Turkish labels.

• Tesisat Mühendisliği, Volume 33, Issue 206; based on the repository abstract only.

CoolingAirflowEnergy

Technical guideFree to read

Open Compute Project Foundation · 2025

Heat Reuse Subproject Update (OCP EMEA Summit 2025)

Site and compliance rules should hold jurisdiction-specific targets (for example Germany: PUE 1.2 for new builds and 10-20% ERF).

• Related documents: Directive (EU) 2023/1791, German Energy Efficiency Act (EnEfG) and ISO/IEC 30134-6 (ERF).

SustainabilityEnergyPerformance metrics

Technical guideCitation

Uptime Institute Intelligence · 2023

Heat Reuse: A Management Primer

For EU sites of 1 MW and above, trigger the EED waste-heat assessment as a step in the design process.

• Published as UII Briefing Report 114, October 2023.

EnergySustainabilityCooling

Technical guideFree to read

iMasons Climate Accord (Infrastructure Masons) · 2025

Heating Emergency Power System Engines with Heat Pumps (Levi J. Westra)

Include generator auxiliary loads (block heaters, battery chargers) in the parasitic load and PUE calculations.

• Block heaters are typically 1-9 kW each, with multiple heaters on large engines.

GeneratorsEnergySustainability

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